Implemented by In Cooperation with
A CITY IN MOTION
Migration, Climate Change, and Governance in Baguio City
A Report Submitted by the Scalabrini Migration Center to GIZ Global Programme
Human Mobility in the Context of Climate Change (HMCCC)
By Maruja M.B. Asis and Alicia G. Follosco
A CITY IN MOTION
Migration, Climate Change, and Governance in Baguio City
A Report Submitted by the Scalabrini Migration Center to GIZ Global
Programme Human Mobility in the Context of Climate Change (HMCCC)
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Implemented by In Cooperation with
A CITY IN MOTION
Migration, Climate Change, and Governance in Baguio City
A Report Submitted by the Scalabrini Migration Center to GIZ Global
Programme Human Mobility in the Context of Climate Change (HMCCC)
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 8
Executive summary 10
Highlights from the study 11
Introduction 12
Literature review 15
Migration to Baguio 15
Challenges of population growth 17
Policy responses of the city government of Baguio (CGB) 20
Climate change and migration 22
Methodology 24
Findings 28
Drivers of migration to Baguio 28
Living in Baguio 31
Views on climate change and environmental degradation 33
Views on the environment-related policies of the CGB 35
Climate change and corporate farms 38
Migration patterns: something old, something new 41
Conclusion and recommendations 41
Climate change and migration nexus 42
Governance 43
Policy and research recommendations 43
References 47
vi
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
Abbreviations
ALIVE Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education
BPIFI Bank of the Philippine Islands Foundation, Inc.
BLISTT Baguio, La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan, Tuba, Tublay
CAR Cordillera Administrative Region
CC Climate Change
CGB City Government of Baguio
CHO CityHealthOfce
CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan
CDRRMO CityDisasterRiskReductionandManagementOfce
DRRM Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
FGD Focus Group Discussion
HMCCC Human Mobility in the Context of Climate Change
KI Key Informant
KII Key Informant Interview
LCCAP Local Climate Change Action Plan
LMIS Local Migration Information System
LGU Local Government Unit
MAO MunicipalAgricultureOfce
NEDA National Economic and Development Authority
POPCOM Commission on Population and Development
RBIM Registry of Barangay Inhabitants and Migrants
ROE Rapid Onset Event
SMC Scalabrini Migration Center
SOE Slow Onset Event
UCC Urban Carrying Capacity
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
vii
T
his research was supported by the GIZ Global Programme Human
Mobility in the Context of Climate Change (HMCCC). We thank Ms.
Andrea Teran, Senior Advisor, and Ms. Patricia Mariano, Advisor, for their
encouragement and valuable comments to earlier drafts of the report. The
Commission on Population and Development-Cordillera Administrative
Region (POPCOM-CAR), the Population Program of the Baguio City
HealthOfce,barangaychairpersonsandofcials,andvariousresource
persons contributed to the research by providing vital information, data,
and insights, assisting in recruiting research participants and offering
venues for meetings. We are grateful to all the research participants in
Baguio City and Atok and La Trinidad, Benguet for their generosity in
sharing their views and experiences. While many contributed to making this
research possible, we alone are responsible for any errors in this report.
Acknowledgements
B
aguio City has been a migration magnet since the 1900s, and migration
has since contributed to its remarkable population growth, economic
dynamism, and the making of a multi-ethnic, multicultural Baguio. Having
reached its ideal population size of 25,000-30,000 decades ago, the city’s
estimated population of close to 370,000 paints a picture of a city bursting
at the seams. This study attempted to examine and link three strands:
migration, climate change (particularly slow onset events), and governance.
It is highly relevant to consider these strands in Baguio City given the
signicanceofmigration,theurgencyofenvironment-relatedconcerns,and
the role that governance can play in promoting sustainable development
in the city. Following are the sets of questions explored by the study:
What are the reasons that brought migrants to Baguio City?
What is the role of environment-related reasons in their
migration to Baguio? How do migrants perceive and experience
Baguio City as a place where they live, work, or study?
What do migrants see as the environmental challenges facing
Baguio City now and in the future? How do migrants understand
slow onset climate change impacts on Baguio City?
What are migrants’ perspectives about the policies and actions of the City
Government of Baguio (CGB) in addressing slow onset climate change?
What are migrants’ future plans? What factors will incline
them to stay or leave Baguio City? How do they understand
the impact of slow onset climate change on migration?
As a secondary objective, the study looked into the possibility
of the future migration of farmers from Atok, Benguet should
climate change adversely affect the agriculture sector, a
sector that heavily relies on environmental conditions.
Primary data were drawn from focus group discussions with migrants and key
informant interviews with relevant stakeholders in Baguio City, supplemented
by interviews conducted with farmers and other resource persons in
Atok and La Trinidad, Benguet. Data collection was conducted mostly in
January 2020. A total of 76 individuals participated in the study. Among
these were migrants who represented the following groups: professionals,
construction workers, university students, and Muslims from Mindanao.
Executive
Summary
HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE STUDY
1. The reasons for migration to Baguio were mainly
employment and education-related. For Muslims,
theconictinMindanaowasafactorintheir
migration to Baguio. The city’s cool weather
is a pull factor which is unique to Baguio.
2. Migrants have varying degrees of permanence
and temporariness in their residence in the city,
ranging from those who have been in Baguio on
a relatively permanent basis to those who stay
in Baguio during the work week and return to
their hometowns on weekends. Whether or not
migrants will settle in Baguio will depend on
prospects and future plans, such as employment
opportunities and marriage, among others.
3. In general, migrants consider Baguio as a
welcoming place and they appreciate the
multicultural character of the city.
4. The economic conditions of migrants differ strikingly
by occupation, suggesting the different degrees of
economic integration of migrants in Baguio City.
Professionals have stable employment and income
while those in the informal sector have variable
income and lack social protection. In the case of
Muslim migrants, their employment prospects are
mostly in trading and within the ethnic community.
5. Social networks played an important role in
facilitating migration and creating chain migration
originatingfromspecicorigincommunities.
6. Migrants, especially professionals and
students, shared the concerns of residents
over the current and long-term environmental
health and livability of Baguio City.
7. Migrants, residents, and other stakeholders
alsoworriedabouttheinuxoftouristsand
theassociatedproblemsofcongestion,trafc,
carbon emission, and mounting trash problems.
8. Migrants’ views on how climate change may
affect migration suggest that the link is not
automatic as other factors may intervene. As
an origin area, increasing temperature may
not necessarily trigger migration from Baguio
because other areas in the Philippines will
likely be warmer. As a destination area, climate
migrants may be deterred from migrating to
Baguio because it is prone to earthquakes, and
there are other destinations to consider.
9. Although Baguio City does not have policies to
manage migration (unlike the well-established
legal and policy frameworks to address the host
of environment-related concerns), the CGB has
introduced good practices to promote the social
integration of migrants. The institutional support
given to the Arabic Language and Islamic Values
Education (ALIVE) program for Muslim students
in public schools and the dialogue with the
Muslim community are excellent examples.
Among the recommendations forwarded by the study is to
develop programs – such as skills training and upgrading,
and programs to support migrants in their job search –
to provide more employment options for migrants and
to improve their economic integration in Baguio City.
Some research recommendations are also offered.
3
Executive Sumary
B
aguio is a city whose past, present, and future prospects are intimately
tied to the arrival of different waves of migrants. With a land area
of 57 square kilometers and a population of 345,000 (as of the 2015
census), there are about 6,000 people per square kilometer in Baguio City,
making it one of the most densely populated cities in the country (Llanes,
2019; see also Palangchao, 2019). The growth of the citys population
is spurred not only by natural increase but by unrelenting migration. As
an economic center, educational magnet, and the hub of the Cordillera
region, migrants are drawn to the city, many of whom eventually decide
to settle permanently in Baguio. The country’s Summer Capital is
also a major tourist destination. During the day or whenever there are
festivities and events, Baguio’s population is further boosted by the
arrivaloftourists(seeTable1foranoverviewofBaguioCity’sprole).
The making of Baguio as a migration magnet started in the 1900s. Early
migration from the lowlands was eased by the opening of Kennon Road in
1905. Later, the completion of the Baguio-Bontoc Road or Halsema Highway
in the 1930s facilitated the movement of people from other parts of Benguet
and the Mountain Province. Another contributing factor to migration were
job opportunities at the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company, now
Benguet Corporation and Philex Mining Corporation; both located close to
Baguio City. More workers migrated to Baguio in the 1960s and 1970s, the
period of house construction boom in the city. First, it was the workers who
came, but later, their family members joined them. In the mid-1990s, the
01
Introduction
Elevation 5,050 ft.
Land Area 57.49 sq. km.
City class Highly urbanized city
Income class 1st class
Number of barangays 128
Population (2015 Census) 345,000
Population (2019 projected) 367,167
Population density (2015) 6,007 per sq. km.
Population density (2019) 6,386 per sq. km.
TABLE 1. BAGUIO CITY: PROFILE
Baguio Export Processing Zone brought in investments
which generated more job opportunities. This was
followed by the rise of the Business Process Outsourcing
(BPO) industry as a source of employment. With job
opportunities in the BPO sector, many student migrants
found work as call center agents and remained in the city.
Over the years, migrants to Baguio not only came from
other parts of the Cordillera region or the lowlands but
also from other countries. In the last two decades, the
citys international migrants have been dominated by
Koreans. A few Koreans started with missionary work
in the 1990s; later, they established English language
schools for Koreans in partnership with Filipinos. Some
brought their families with them and settled in Baguio.
Despite the importance of migration to the city’s social
landscape, studies on migration to Baguio City are
sparse. About a decade ago, a review of international
migration studies in the Cordillera Administrative Region
(CAR) noted the importance of economic drivers in
migration in the region (Rosito, 2006 as cited in Follosco
and Soler, 2011: 41). While migration contributes to the
city’s vibrancy, its contribution to population increase is
inevitably linked to rising demand for housing, resources,
and social services. Housing and commercial construction
has generated questions about proper land use, the safety
of built infrastructure, and environmental consequences.
The demand for resources such as water, the production
of waste and its management, the regulation of land
useandoodcontrol(giventhatBaguioCityhasthe
highest rainfall in the country, according to the 2014 BPI
Foundation Inc./WWF study) have implications for the
health of the environment in general. The study found
that Baguio City is exposed to the following climate/
environmentalchallenges:extremerainfallandintensied
tropical cyclones, landslide risk because it is criss-crossed
1TheFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeidentiesthefollowingasSOEs:sealevelrise,increasingtemperatures,oceanacidication,glacial
retreatandrelatedimpacts,salinization,landandforestdegradation,lossofbiodiversityanddesertication(UNFCCC,2012:2).Ontheotherhand,
examplesofROEsare:earthquakes,cyclonesortyphoonsorwindstorms,landslidesandavalanches,wildres,oodsandvolcaniceruptions.
byseismicfaults,ooding,inadequatewatersupplyand
runoff. Even marginal lands in Baguio City are occupied,
mostly by poor migrant families who are exposed to
various environmental risks, including those brought
about by climate change. These manifold issues pose
enormous challenges for a city that was designed for
25,000-30,000 people (CGB, n.d.a.), which was achieved
between 1939 and 1948 (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 150). These
concernswereampliedinthe2019NationalEconomic
and Development Authority-Cordillera Administrative
Region (NEDA-CAR) study on the city’s urban carrying
capacity (hereafter referred to as the UCC study). The
study examined Baguio’s urban carrying capacity, i.e., “the
maximum level of human activities, population growth,
land use and physical development sustained by the urban
environment without causing serious degradation and
irreversible damage” and proposed recommendations.
In January 2020, the CGB came up with a 15-year
rehabilitation plan to address environmental degradation.
The present study builds on the momentum of research
that have examined the environmental impact (e.g.,
NEDA, 2019) and climate change impact (BPIFI-WWF,
2014) on Baguio. The study attempted to explore the
climate change and migration nexus in the context of
Baguio, a city that is affected by both phenomena. The
studyisspecicallyinterestedinslowonsetevents
(SOEs), i.e., hazards that do not emerge from a single,
distinct event but develop gradually over time, often
resultingfromaconuenceofdifferentevents.This
is in contrast with rapid onset events (ROEs) which
may be single, discrete events that occur in a matter
of days or even hours (UNFCCC, 2012).
1
The climate
change and migration nexus was explored from the
perspective of migrants, who comprise a substantial
share of Baguio City’s constituents. Toward this
end, the study pursued the following questions:
5
01 | Introduction
What are the reasons that brought migrants to
Baguio City? What is the role of environment-
related reasons in their migration to Baguio? How
do migrants perceive and experience Baguio City
as a place where they live, work, or study?
What do migrants see as the environmental
challenges facing Baguio City now and in the
future? How do migrants understand slow onset
climate change impacts on Baguio City?
What are migrants’ perspectives about the policies
and actions of the City Government of Baguio
(CGB) in addressing slow onset climate change?
What are migrants’ future plans? What factors
will incline them to stay or leave Baguio City?
How do they understand the impact of slow
onset climate change on migration?
As a secondary objective, the study sought to explore
the possibility of the future migration of farmers from
Atok, Benguet should climate change adversely affect
the agriculture sector. This was added to provide a
comparison with the views and experiences of migrants
who are already in Baguio. Furthermore, as a sector
that heavily relies on environmental conditions,
climate change impacts on agriculture may trigger
migration as one of several adaptive strategies.
© Sebastian Hermann | Unsplash
6
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
MIGRATION TO BAGUIO
B
aguio was established as a chartered city on 1 September 1909. In the next
30 years, what used to be a vast expanse of rancherias
2
of the Ibaloys/
Ibalois, was transformed by various construction projects, shaping Baguio into
asemblanceofanAmericancity.Civilservants,Americancolonialofcials,
afuentFilipinos,andotherforeignerstroopedtothehighlandsandbuilt
summer houses. The construction of Benguet Road (now known as Kennon
Road) made the city accessible, which led “to a multiethnic convergence in
Baguio—a phenomenon never before experienced by the Igorots and, thus, a
development to which they could not readily respond” (Prill-Brett, 2019: 292).
The multi-ethnic character of Baguio today can be gauged from the various
mother tongues spoken by the citys population: 50 percent Ilocano; 23
percent Tagalog; 4 percent Pangasinense; 10 percent Cordillera languages;
and others (OCPDC, 2002 as cited in Estorque and Muriyama, 2013: 243)
3
.
Another indicator is ethnicity. In the census, ethnicity is measured by the
question: “What is _____’s ethnicity by blood? Is he/she a/an _____?
Based on the 2010 census, out of the total population then of 315,800,
Ilocanos comprise a third of the city’s population. Collectively, the six
major ethno-linguistic groups from the Cordillera comprise 34.5 percent, of
whom the Kankanaeys are the largest group (11.5 percent). Other Cordillera
ethno-linguistic groups are among those included in ‘others’ in Table 2.
Continuingmigrationhasdiversiedthe“old”categoriesofBaguio’s
population—Ibaloys/Ibalois, Baguio “old-timers” (lowlanders and expatriates),
and other Cordillerans. The migration of other Cordillera indigenous
populations to Baguio started during the construction years in the 1900s. The
construction boom, the mining booms in Benguet Province, the Second World
War,epidemics,tribalwarsandconicts,andmilitarizationoftheCordillera
countryside underlaid the different drivers behind the migration of Cordillera
indigenous peoples over the decades (Cacho and Carling, 2012). The major
Cordillera indigenous peoples who migrated to Baguio are the Kankanaey,
2 “Spanish-introduced administrative political divisions of Ibaloy settlements” (Prill-Brett, 2019:
302).
3 As a measure of ethnicity, language has some limitations: many ethnolinguistic groups in the
Cordillera speak Ilocano, but they are not Ilocanos.
02
Literature Review
Bontoc, Sadanga, and Ifugao. In Baguio City, they formed
their own communities, hence, there are areas in Baguio
which are known as Bontoc Village or Ifugao Village.
According to Cacho and Carling (2012: 23), 35 percent
of Baguio’s indigenous population work in the formal
sector as professionals, government employees,
businesspeople and traders. The majority, 65 percent,
are under-employed or jobless, primarily because
the traditional skills the migrants bring with them—
weaving, stonewalling and woodcarving—do not
match the skills needed for urban-based jobs.
Some migrants engage in backyard piggery and backyard
gardening, livelihood activities that they can practice
intheirvillages,butaredifculttomaintaininthe
city
4
. Because of their precarious economic conditions,
many of the indigenous Cordillera migrants (who had
actually become residents)
5
cannot afford housing and
lack access to basic services. There had been efforts to
organize the indigenous sector from the early 1980s
toghtforrecognitionoftheirrights,interestsand
welfare (Cacho and Carling, 2012). The cultural impacts
of migration on the authority of elders were discussed
by Bangkawayan (2011) in her study of the Northern
Kankanaey from Bogang, Sagada to the Baguio-La
Trinidad area. The study concluded that in the new
and urban context, the authority of the elders over the
younger ones has been eroded due to the scattered
residence patterns of migrants, the shift from subsistence
economy to urban employment, and the inapplicability of
practicing agricultural rituals in the city, among others.
4 In Baguio, lack of proper disposal of wastes from the piggeries has added to the pollution of the city’s rivers (See, 2018). The CGB issued an
ultimatum for hograisers to stop operations by 31 December 2019; this is in compliance with national laws that prohibit commercial and backyard
piggery in urban areas. In an interview with one of the barangay chairpersons in January 2020, the barangay had to enforce the prohibition of
backyard piggery, the main livelihood of some Ibaloi families.
5 According to Cacho and Carling (2012), the indigenous migrants continue to maintain their farms and homes in their communities of origin, and
hence, they consider them as semi-transient. The authors of the present study consider them as residents or settlers if they have resided in Baguio
foratleastveyears.AlargeproportionofBaguioresidentsmayhaveamigrantorigin(i.e.,theywerenotborninBaguio),butiftheyhaveresidedin
Baguioforveyearsormore,theyhavebecomesettlersorresidents,eveniftheycontinuetomaintaintiestotheirhomecommunities.
As mentioned earlier, lowlanders who started migrating
to Baguio in the early decades of the 20th century have
become a core population of the city known as Baguio
“old-timers.” Migration from the lowlands is a continuing
phenomenon (e.g., see Nacar and Parel, 2016).
From the Cordillera and the neighboring Ilocos and
Central Luzon provinces, the geographical origins
of migrants to the city have expanded to the rest of
ETHNICITY FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Ilocano 103,458 32.8%
Tagalog 37,027 11.7%
Kankanaey 36,854 11.7%
Pangasinan/
Panggalato
27,961 8.9%
Ibaloi/Ibaloy 21,292 6.7%
Applai 19,903 6.3%
Bontok/Bontoc 14,931 4.7%
Ifugao 10,375 3.3%
Bisaya/Binisaya 7,168 2.3%
Kalinga 5,759 1.8%
Kapampangan 5,023 1.6%
Others 59,033 8.2 %
TABLE 2. POPULATION OF BAGUIO CITY BY
ETHNICITY, 2010 CENSUS OF POPULATION
8
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
the country. Migration from Mindanao has added
another layer of diversity to Baguio–the presence of
Muslims.TheconictinMindanaowasanimportant
reason among the earliest cohorts of Muslim migrants
(Basquez and Marzan, 2002; Medina, 1996).
Apart from economic opportunities, the climate of
Baguio was an important consideration in the decision
of different migrants to move to the Summer Capital
(Nacar and Parel, 2016; Basquez and Marzan, 2002;
Medina, 1996; Aquitania and Palafox, 2001). The
Cordilleran, lowlander, and Muslim migrants commonly
mentioned family and friends who have preceded them
toBaguio,suggestingtheinuenceofsocialnetworks.
Except for the Kankanaey migrants who said that they
plan to remain in Baguio (Aquitania and Palafox, 2001),
the other migrants said they would consider staying if
they found stable gainful employment (Nacar and Parel,
2016; Basquez and Marzan, 2002; Medina, 1996).
Delias and Daly (2016) discussed the migration of low-
wage workers, tertiary level students and BPO workers
to Baguio as being shaped by government policies and
business interests. According to them, the surge in the
migration of low-wage workers to Baguio accompanied
thepushforthetourismsector,whichintensiedafter
the 1990 earthquake. The continuing migration of
tertiary level students to the city has much to with the
concentration of major higher education institutions in
Baguio – seven in 10 universities in CAR are in Baguio.
They cited that for each local tertiary student, there are
three non-local or what they call “transient” students.
The Baguio City Economic Zone (BCEZ) is one of the four
pioneering economic zones set up in 1979. It is a major
contributor to the citys revenues. Aside from producing
clothing, aircraft parts, and electronic components
for export, the complex has also become home to a
thriving BPO sector. The BPO industry has become the
single largest private employer in the city. Based on
interviews that Delias and Daly (2016) have conducted,
many workers in the BPO sector are not from Baguio.
CHALLENGES OF POPULATION GROWTH
I
n 1903, Baguio had a population of 489. Between
1939 and 1948, it achieved its ideal population of
25,000-30,000 (PDO-CGB, 2016: 7). As discussed earlier,
migration was and continues to be a major factor in
the population growth of Baguio City. Figure 1 shows
the estimated and projected population of Baguio City
from 2018 to 2045. The projections are from the UCC
study. The projections are based on the scenario they
determined most likely to happen (Scenario 3), which
assumes continuing annual growth of 1.54 percent from
2016 to 2020, 1.34 percent from 2021 to 2030, and 1.24
percent from 2031 onwards (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 45-46).
Continuing population growth raises exposure
to geohazards. Between 1990 and 2010, Baguio
experienced population growth mostly because of
migration. According to Delias and Daly (2016), based
on the updated hazards map done by the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources in 2008, 80 percent
of the land in Baguio is highly susceptible to landslides
and generally unsafe for dense habitation. At least 25
sinkholeshavebeenidentied,withfourlocatedinthe
densely populated neighborhoods in City Camp Proper,
Crystal Cave, Dominican, and Green Valley (as cited in
the CLUP 2013-2023). Also, most of the buildings in the
vulnerable areas were either not formally planned or did
not adhere to building codes. Many built multi-storey
buildings that are rented out to transient workers and
students. They also found that most of the population
increase occurred in risky places: “[o]verall, twenty-
seven out of the twenty-nine neighborhoods with
the highest population growth from 1990 until 1995
were areas that had high susceptibility to sinkholes
and landslides” (Delias and Daly, 2016: 71). Regardless,
illegal settlements and major land development
projects for residential and commercial purposes
mushroomed in these areas. The greatest population
increase still occurs in neighborhoods or areas that are
highly vulnerable to hazards, including earthquakes.
9
02 | Literature Review
The lessons of the 1990 earthquake seem to have been
forgotten by residents and are not generally known
to new migrants. Baguio used to hold an annual
commemoration of the 1990 earthquake. In 2010, the
20th anniversary of the earthquake, a report noted
that then Baguio Mayor Mauricio Domogan “refused
to commemorate the tragedys 20-year high point. He
was a Baguio Congressman when he convinced the
local government that 2008 would be the last time
the city would commemorate the quake so residents
couldnally‘moveon’”(CabrezaandSotelo,2010)
6
.
On 19 December 2018, the City Council approved the
local shelter plan 2018-2026 of the City of Baguio. As
the blueprint for the implementation of housing projects,
6 The activities in the 2008 commemoration were intended to mark “a departure from ‘remembering a time of denouement’ every earthquake
anniversary” (Guimbatan, 2008). The yearly commemoration continues, but the remembering part, particularly the atang or offering, is no longer
performed and has been replaced by tree planting.
the target population of the plan are informal settlers
or those in reservation areas, doubled-up households
or unit-sharers, and projected new households (See,
n.d.a.). When the administration of Mayor Benjamin
Magalong commenced on 30 June 2019, the long-
running conundrums of informal settlements and
houses in high risk areas did not escape his attention
of the current administration. To reduce the housing
backlog and to provide decent housing to informal
settlers, he mentioned affordable tenement housing
as a solution. Given the limited land area of Baguio, he
hoped that people would learn to accept that single-
detached housing units are not feasible (See, n.d.b.).
The UCC study is the most recent undertaking which
FIGURE 1. PROJECTED MID-YEAR POPULATION, 2018-2045
Source: Table 7 in NEDA-CAR (2019: 45-46)
Note: Table 7 in NEDA-CAR (2019: 45-46) has year by year estimate and projection from 2018 to 2045.
10
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
examined the city’s population growth in relation to
its resource base. According to the UCC study, “[a]s of
2015, the population density of Baguio City has reached
its critical level of about 6,000 persons per square km
compared to the national standard of 1,000 persons per
square km” (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 13)
7
. Considering the
environmental capacity, population, and the built-up area,
the results of the carrying capacity modeling suggest
that Baguio has reached its maximum carrying capacity in
2018 (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 151). The carrying capacity can
be exceeded, but this will have negative repercussions on
the resource base and will adversely affect the people’s
quality of life. The study underlined that the carrying
capacityisnotxedanditcanbeadjustedbyconsidering
management and technological solutions. The study
has extensive recommendations on ecology and the
environment, transport, urban land requirements, and
urban facilities and services. It noted the lack of survey
data on the daytime or transient and seasonal population
of Baguio City, as this is crucial to policymaking and
planning. The UCC study recommends that in the future
a periodic census (or survey) of the transient population
becarriedtoreachamorerenedestimationofthe
city’s carrying capacity (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 12).
Interestingly, the UCC study advances that in the
future, Baguio will cease to attract migrants mostly
because of lack of residential space, and that they may
opt to settle in La Trinidad or other parts of Benguet
close to Baguio. Thus, the study assumes that in the
future, Baguio’s population growth (based on the citys
permanent or nighttime population) will be due more
to natural increase than in-migration. An earlier study
also concluded that Baguio’s population growth is
posing dangers to the citys sustainability. Recognizing
the role of migration, Cleto and Cariño (2012: 10) said
thatitwillbedifculttocontrolthecity’spopulation
growth because of Baguio’s roles “as a popular tourist
7 Critical level refers to the “population load poses a threat to the environment and natural resources of the city” (NEDA-CAR, 2019: 13).
destination and center of education and health services,
all of which contribute to the city’s transient population
and a high rate of in-migration.” In the future, one view
expects migration to slow down because Baguio can no
longer accommodate additional migrants; another view
is that more migrants will continue to come, and this
will require better planning, as well as mitigation and
adaptation strategies to reduce environmental impacts.
POLICY RESPONSES OF THE CITY
GOVERNMENT OF BAGUIO (CGB)
T
he 16 July 1990 earthquake was a traumatic
experience for Baguio City. Although the epicenter
of the 7.7 magnitude earthquake was Nueva Ecija, the
damage to life and property in Baguio was extensive—
more than a thousand people died, major hotels and
buildings crumbled, and many homes were destroyed.
Through the city government’s recovery efforts,
aided by national government funding for the city’s
rehabilitation and the modernization of the Marcos
Highway and Baguio-Bauang Road, and the people
of Baguio, the city recovered from the earthquake.
Just four years after the earthquake, from 1994 to
1996, Baguio was consistently on top of the country’s
cleanest and greenest urbanized cities (Aboot, 2018).
After the earthquake, reviews and plans on disaster
preparedness were carried out in Baguio City and
nationally. National frameworks and laws served as
a template for the formulation of Baguio’s disaster
risk management. The 1990s mostly focused on the
creation of structures to implement national policies
in the local context. The CGB reactivated the City
Disaster Coordinating Council in 1992, which was
responsible for implementing the policies set by the
National Coordinating Council for disaster management.
Three years later, in 1995, the City Disaster Operations
Center was established to serve as a center for disaster
11
02 | Literature Review
management and planning operations (Delias and Daly,
2016). It was not until two decades later—with the
enactment of Republic Act No. 10121, or the Philippine
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Act
of 2010—that the CGB formulated and completed a
comprehensive framework on disaster risk reduction
and management (Delias and Daly, 2016). In keeping
with the more proactive framework of Republic Act
No. 10121, national government agencies and LGUs are
mandated toward risk reduction, building resilience,
creatingDRRMofces,formulatingDRRMplans,and
allocating a budget to fund their DRRM plans. At the
time of the study, Baguio’s City Disaster Risk Reduction
andManagementOfce(CDRRMO)hasitsown
building;theofceisenvisionedtohouseanintegrated
command center that will coordinate and facilitate
an appropriate response to emergency situations.
In the last ten years, the CGB formulated important
policies and measures to promote the sustainable
development of the city, which include the following:
The Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) of
Baguio City 2013-2023 was approved by the City
Council through Resolution No. 306, Series of 2016
(PDO-CGB, 2016). As the blueprint of the city’s
physical and economic development, the plan aims
to pursue development goals while preserving the
city’s ecological balance. It is worth mentioning
that in his message, then Mayor Mauricio Domogan
stated that the CLUP will guide “the effective use
of limited resources vis-à-vis Baguio’s multiple roles
as center for tourism, education, trade and regional
center and an alternative haven from the adverse
effects of climate change.” The last point suggests
a new role for Baguio City and the prospect of
additionalinuxofpeoplewhohadbeendisplaced
by climate change in their origin communities. It
does not consider the other possibility: that climate
change in Baguio City may trigger out-migration, or
Baguio losing its appeal as a tourist destination.
Another key document is the Environment Code
which was approved by the City Council through
Ordinance No. 18, Series of 2016 (CGB, n.d.b.). The
DeclarationofPolicyspecicallymentionsclimate
change and has a section devoted to climate change
(Book VII-Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management). The section on
climate change recognizes both SOEs and ROEs.
The city will mainstream disaster risk reduction
and climate change in its urban planning. While the
Local Climate Change Adaptation Plan or LCCAP is
still being crafted (it is expected to be completed by
the end of 2020), the Environment Code provides
guidelinestothedifferentofcesonthemitigationof
the effects of climate change and disasters. Examples
arethedirectivestotheCitySchoolsDivisionOfce
to integrate climate change adaptation in the school
curricula and to train barangays on how to prepare
their climate change adaptation and mitigation plans.
Ordinance No. 35 series of 2017 or the “Plastic and
Styrofoam-Free Baguio Ordinance” aims to regulating
the sale, distribution, and use of plastic bags and
polystyrene foam or Styrofoam in Baguio City (CGB,
n.d.c.). It builds on Ordinance No. 26 series of 2007 or
the Baguio City Paper Bag Ordinance mandates the
use of paper bags, buri bags, and other biodegradable
containers in all supermarkets, groceries, and
other retail business establishments in the city.
The 2017 ordinance covers all business activities and
establishments in the city including city government
schoolsandofces.Theprohibitionagainstthe
use of plastic bags and Styrofoam containers is
aimed at reducing waste that can impact negatively
on the environment and at reducing the burden
on the city’s solid waste management system.
12
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
In January 2020, the City Government launched
the 15-year Baguio rehabilitation plan
8
. The main
areas for rehabilitation are the following: the
environment,transportandtrafc,watersupply,
tourist destinations, and geo-hazard areas occupied
by informal settlers. The national government will
provide support, including PHP 480 million from
the Department of Tourism earmarked for the
rehabilitation of the Burnham Park Complex.
Following the launch of the rehabilitation plan,
on20January2020,aproposalwasledtocollect
environmental fees from businesses providing
accommodations and from persons visiting parks or
tourist attractions that are managed and maintained
by the City Government of Baguio. According to
the proponents—Councilors Benny Bomogao, Joel
Alangsab and Arthur Alladiw—the fees will help address
limited funds to sustain the city’s tourist attractions
and to defray the costs of waste management and
environmental programs. The proposal was approved
onrstreadingandreferredtotheCommitteeon
Health and Sanitation, Ecology, and Environmental
Protection for review and recommendation (See, 2020).
It is noteworthy that the legal framework to
promote sustainable development, environmental
health, and disaster risk reduction and management
has been built over the years. While migration
has been implied as a contributing factor to the
environmental challenges of Baguio, however,
migration-related policies seem non-existent.
8 For details, see http://www.baguio.gov.ph/content/areas-rehabilitation-city-bared-brieng-three-line-agencies
9Theuseofthetermenvironmentalorclimaterefugeeisnotencouraged.ThetermrefugeehasaspecicmeaningasdenedinArticle1(A2)inthe
1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. Instead, the terms environmental migrants or climate migrants or displaced person should be
used to refer to individuals moving because of climate change (IOM, 2019: 29-30, 62-63; UN, nd; UNU, 2015).
CLIMATE CHANGE AND MIGRATION
I
n a global context, climate change as a driver
of migration has been debated in academia, the
international policy arena and humanitarian circles.
In 2005, the Institute for Environment and Human
Security at the United Nations University in Bonn, said
that environmental deterioration displaces 10 million
people a year; thus by 2010, there could be 50 million
environmental refugees
9
. When this did not explicitly
happen, it weakened the position that climate change
increases the likelihood of migration and raised such
questions as “how environmental changes affect
migration events, and whether it is even reasonable
to use environmental conditions to explain migration”
(Gesing, Herbeck and Klepp, 2014: 5). According to
them, assuming that environmental conditions lead to
migration “neglects the interaction between the different
cultural, political, and social factors which, in fact, form
the basis of migration decisions making it neither possible
nor effective to consider these dimensions separately
from each other” (Gesing, Herbeck and Klepp, 2014: 5).
Along this line, Cometti (2015: 14) argued that the study
of climate change and migration “is complex and goes
beyond classic causality.” She called for an ethnographic
approach which should include the way that people
make sense of climate change (Cometti, 2015: 14).
In the Philippines, climate change is widely discussed
asapolicyissue,butresearchthatspecically
examines the climate change and migration nexus is
missing. An exception is Bohra-Mishra et al. (2017)
who considered how climate change may spur internal
migration. Their study interrogated climate variability
and internal migration in the Philippines by examining
the following: 1) the effects of both climatic variations
(variability in temperature and precipitation) and
13
02 | Literature Review
extremeevents(specicallytyphoons)onaggregate
inter-provincial migration; 2) the link between crop
yields and climatic variations; and 3) climate migration
sensitivity to demographic and socio-economic
characteristics. Using census data, climate data and rice
yields, the study reached the following conclusions:
A rise in temperature and, to some extent, increased
typhoon activity increase outmigration; precipitation
doesnothaveaconsistent,signicanteffect.
A rise in temperature and to some extent,
typhoons, promote migration through
their negative effect on crop yields.
Males, those with more education, and younger
individuals are more sensitive or more responsive to
climatic impacts, and are thus more likely to migrate.
ThendingsfromtheBohraetal.(2017)studyprovide
an important backdrop in appreciating the big picture.
Although they did not focus on climate change and
migration, existing studies on climate change in Baguio
(BPIFI/WWF, 2014) and the UCC study (NEDA-CAR,
2019) share the same macro approach to climate
change and environmental questions. By focusing
on migration decision making and understandings of
climate change of migrants in Baguio City, this study
hopes to uncover the micro dimensions of climate
change and migration nexus. In Baguio City, much of
the discussion on the presumed links between climate
change and migration is often framed in terms of how
migration has contributed to the city’s population
growth, which in turn, has climate change impacts.
The migrants’ perspective is often left out in these
discussions and the study aims to remedy this oversight.
© John Lorenz Tajo | Unsplash
14
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
P
rimary data for the study were collected through key
informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions
(FGDs) with migrants in Baguio City and stakeholders.
Most of the data collection activities were carried out in January 2020.
Preliminary interviews conducted in December 2019, and several follow
through interviews in February 2020 provided supplementary information.
A total of 76 research participants were reached by the study, comprising
37 migrants and 28 stakeholders in Baguio City, and 11 farmers, owners/
managersoftouristdestinations,municipalgovernmentofcers,and
a farm supervisor and a farmworker in Benguet. The research sites of
the study are indicated in Figure 2. The breakdown of interviews and
FGDs conducted in Baguio City and Benguet is presented in Table 3.
03
Methodology
FIGURE 2. RESEARCH SITES: BAGUIO CITY AND ATOK AND LA TRINIDAD, BENGUET
Source: Maps from Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation, Inc.
1
1 Thanks to Ms. Ma. Rosario R. Lopez, Executive Director of Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation, Inc., for permission to use the maps.
The team sought the assistance of faculty members
from two universities, a dorm manager, a call center
agent, and a staff member of a construction company
to invite participants. Through this strategy, several
FGD groups and interviews were organized. The team
had to work with what was possible and who actually
showed up during the FGD dates. There were instances
when many more participants were recruited than was
needed (such as the case with university students). On
some occasions, an FGD was scheduled, but because
participants came at different times, individual
interviews were done instead. Even when the minimum
of six participants was not met, the team proceeded
withtheFGDbecauseitwouldhavebeendifcultto
reschedule. An important caveat is the participation of
more women than men in the FGDs with students and
professionals. Despite the problems, the team completed
six FGDs with migrants (three with students and one
each with professionals, construction workers, and
maleMuslims)andveinterviews(onewithafemale
professional and one each with four female Muslims).
PLACE / SECTOR NUMBER OF PERSONS
Baguio City
Interviews and FGDs with migrants 37
FGD with construction workers 4
FGD with UP students (2 groups) 13
FGD with SLU students 4
FGD with professionals 6
FGD with Muslim male migrants 6
Interviews with Muslim female migrants 4
Interview with a professional 1
Interviews with stakeholders 28
Electedofcials(cityandselectedbarangays) 9
Ofcialsofcitygovernmentofces 7
Ofcialsofregionalgovernmentofces 6
Residents with advocacy 3
Residentsinvolvedwithspecicgroups 2
Pioneer resident 1
Benguet
Interviews with various key informants 11
Owners/managers of tourist destinations (Atok) 2
Farmers (Atok) 5
Farm supervisor; farmworker (Atok) 2
Municipalgovernmentofcers(AtokandLaTrinidad) 2
Grand Total
76
TABLE 3. RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS BY PLACE AND SECTOR/GROUP
16
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
For this study, a migrant is an individual who had resided
in another city/municipality, province or region or country,
and moved to Baguio City, where she/he has resided
foratleastthreemonths,butlessthanveyears.This
followsthedenitionofamigrantusedbythe2018
National Migration Survey which was jointly conducted
by the Philippine Statistical Authority and the University
of the Philippines (PSA and UPPI, 2019). For this study,
the duration of residence in Baguio City must be at least
10 In the census of population, the data to identify domestic and international migrants in the Philippines are drawn by comparing place of residence
attwopointsintime.Forexample,intheMay2010census,theidenticationofamigrantsisbasedonthequestion“Inwhatcity/municipalitydid
resideveyearsago(May1,2005)?”Anindividualisidentiedasamigrantifhis/herresidenceveyearsago(May1,2005)agoisdifferentfromhis/
her residence at the time of the May 2010 census. Another measure, called lifetime migration, is derived by comparing place of birth and place of
current residence. Lifetime migration does not cover any migrations that may have transpired between an individual’s time of birth and the time of
the census.
threemonthstonomorethanveyears(seeBox1)atthe
time of data collection.
10
The recruitment process took
into account the gender and age of potential participants.
Meetings with farmers and interviews with municipal
ofcials,owners/managersoftouristattractions,
and a farm supervisor and farmworker were also
conductedinAtok,Benguet.TheeldworkinAtok
allowed the study to capture a community whose
BOX 1. MIGRANTS, TRANSIENTS AND TOURISTS
In the research literature and news reports about Baguio City
and also in the interviews conducted by the present study, the
terms “migrants,”transients” and “tourists” are mentioned
and seem to be used interchangeably. Migrants, transients and
tourists move, but they are not the same.
Asindicatedbelow,migrationinvolvesthecrossingofdened
geographic or political units during a specied period of
observation. The geographic or political units (e.g., city/
municipality, province, region, country) and the period of
observation (the 2018 National Migration Survey used at least
threemonths)mustbespecied
What is migration?
Migration. A form of geographic or spatial mobility of people
involvingachangeofusualresidencebetweenclearlydened
geographic or political units during a specied period of
observation for reasons that may be economic, social, political
and/or cultural in nature” (PSA and UPPI, 2019: 42).
The focus of the present study is on internal migration.
Internal Migration. A form of geographic or spatial mobility
of people involving a change of usual residence within a country
(region,province,city/municipality)duringaspeciedperiod
of observation for economic, social, political and/or cultural
reasons” (PSA and UPPI, 2019: 42).
The migrants who participated in this study were born or had
resided in another city/municipality, province and region in
the Philippines and had lived in Baguio City for at least three
months. Note that migrants who have lived in their current
placeofresidenceforacertainperiodoftime(e.g.,veyears
based on the use of census data) are already counted as
residents.
At the time of data collection, the Local Migration Information
System (LMIS), now known as the Registry of Barangay
Inhabitants & Migrants (RBIM), was being piloted in four
barangays: City Camp Central, Mines View Park, San Luis and
Upper Rock Quarry. The project aims to build a database on
migration at the level of the barangay (see Annex 1 for the
RBIM questionnaire). The LMIS includes the variable “type
of resident” which has three categories: (1) non-migrant
previousresidenceveago,and/orsixmonthsagoisthesame
as current residence; (2) migrant—previous residence ve
years ago , and/or at least six months and one day and current
residenceisdifferent;and(3)transient—previousresidenceve
years ago, and/or six months ago and current residence is less
than six months.
In light of the historical and continuing migration and short-
term movements of people to Baguio City, distinguishing
migrants, transientsandtourists would helprene research,
policy and advocacy discussions in Baguio City.
(For more details on the denition and measurement of
migration in the Philippines, please see PSA Board Resolution
No. 08, Series of 2017.)
17
03 | Methodology
economic backbone is agriculture but is also becoming
a tourist destination. An interview with a municipal
governmentofcerinLaTrinidadwasalsorealized;
the interview provided insights on the formulation of
La Trinidad’s Local Climate Change Plan, 2017-2026.
Gender,age,andeconomicstatusweresensitizinglters
in the analysis of interviews and transcriptions. In the
presentationofndings,thenamesanddesignations
of the key informants and FGD participants have been
withheld or the names have been changed to protect the
privacy of the research participants. In the discussion,
the group represented by different participants is
identied–asmigrants,asstakeholders,andothers–
to provide some background on their social location.
© Gian Paul Guinto | Unsplash
18
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
DRIVERS OF MIGRATION TO BAGUIO
L
ike generations of migrants before them, the current migrants who
participated in this study were primarily drawn to the economic
opportunities offered by Baguio City. Baguio’s unrivalled place as the
economic, educational, and administrative center of CAR continues
to drive migration to the city. The presence of regional government
ofces,anexportprocessingzone,apopularmall,andBPOcompanies
generate jobs that attract migrants. As a popular tourist destination,
arangeofservice-relatedjobsislledbylocalsandmigrantsalike.
Baguio City attracts many students because the city’s educational
institutions (St. Louis University, University of Baguio, University of the
Cordilleras, and the University of the Philippines Baguio) are renowned
and top-performing universities. These are elaborated below.
Economic-driven migration. The study captured two types of economic
migrants—professionals and construction workers—who found employment
opportunities in the city. The professionals found work in the BPO
sector, a bank, university (as researchers), and church (as missionaries to
students) while the construction workers were employed by a Baguio-
based construction company that has long-term projects with a hospital.
The professional group was dominated by recent graduates, almost all of
whom completed their university education in Baguio City. Most of the
professionals originated from outside Northern Luzon, suggesting that
the geographic origins of professional migrants had expanded beyond
CAR and Northern Luzon. The construction workers were from La Union
and Nueva Ecija. Except for one whose family had joined him in Baguio,
the rest left their families behind in their home provinces. Those from La
Union had the advantage of shorter journey times. In fact, one of the two
professionals from La Union also goes home to his family every weekend.
04
Findings
Education-related migration. The three groups of
students who participated in the study attended two
major universities. In one group, the students came from
Ifugao, La Union and Pangasinan. For this group, other
family members studied in the same university and they
were following a family tradition of sorts. The two other
groups were students in another university; the students
were not only from nearby Northern Luzon provinces but
also from other parts of Luzon. In general, for students
coming from Northern Luzon, proximity to home was an
additional reason why they chose to study in Baguio.
Conict-related migration. Among the FGD participants
and interviewees, some of the Muslim migrants from
Mindanao,somecitedconictasapushfactorthatplayed
a part in their decision to leave their home communities.
A recent migrant came to Baguio following the siege of
Marawi City in 2017.
11
The decision to come to Baguio,
however,wasalsoinuencedbythepresenceoffamily
and friends who had established a foothold in the city.
Baguio’s environment as a pull factor. Of all the migrants
involved in the study, none cited moving to Baguio
due to climate change factors that affected their home
communities. However, Baguio’s environment – the cool
weather, the scent of pine trees, the beautiful scenery –
adds to the attractiveness of Baguio as a destination. The
salience of Baguio’s environment came up in migrants’
response to the question on what they liked about living
in Baguio. The cool climate was the topmost answer.
They said Baguio’s cool climate is soothing and pleasant
(“One does not sweat [in Baguio]”). In the FGD with
male Muslim migrants, one participant said that even
if one has problems, somehow the cool weather is a
stress reliever; his colleagues agreed with him. Students
11 According to a barangay chairperson, their barangay experienced a spike in the arrival of Muslims following the Marawi siege.
12 Compared to the lowlands, Baguio temperature is generally cooler by 9ºC (PDO-CGB, 2016: 61).
13 According to a key informant, the Islamic school also has international students.
mentioned that the weather is conducive for studying.
Several key informants considered Baguio’s cool climate
as a distinctive appeal of the city; without it, they said that
Baguio would be just like any other highly urbanized city.
12
Multiple migration drivers. The different migration
driversdiscussedabovereectthatprimaryreason
formigrationisnottheonlyfactorthatguresinthe
decision to migrate to Baguio. A professional migrant
who works in the BPO sector took the opportunity to
transfer to Baguio so she and her son can be together.
When she worked in Manila, she left her son in the care
of her parents in La Union; she did not think Manila was
a good environment to raise her son. Also, the migration
of Muslims to Baguio cannot be solely attributed to the
conictinMindanao.SomeoftheMuslimmigrantscame
to Baguio to join other family members. Furthermore,
for Muslims who are from the Cordillera or CAR or other
areas in Luzon, one pull factor to Baguio is to study
in the Islamic school, Al-Maarif Educational Center,
Inc.—this was the case of one male FGD participant.
13
Social networks as facilitators. Other than migration
drivers, it is also important to mention the role of
social networks — largely family, relatives and friends
— which play a key role in facilitating migration. The
drivers of migration address the question why people
move. But, by themselves, push factors (conditions in
the origin communities that promote out-migration) or
pull factors (conditions in the destination communities
thatattractmigrants)arenotsufcienttoaccountfor
migration. Social networks are intervening factors that
can facilitate and thereby increase the likelihood of
migration taking place through providing support to
potentialmigrants—e.g.,information,nancialsupport
and accommodation, among others. The role of social
20
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
BOX 2. MUSLIM MIGRANTS FIND A HOME IN BAGUIO
1
The migration of Muslims to Baguio has been going on for
decades, but their increasing number and presence in the city
seem to have been more marked in recent years (Dalay-on, 2014).
Several key informants shared that they have recollections of
Muslims being present in Baguio in the 1970s and 1980s. Some
key informants mentioned having grandfathers who have
migrated to the city earlier; one research participant shared
that she and her family are living in a house acquired by her
grandfather. The fragile peace and order situation in Mindanao
had been cited as a major reason for the migration of Muslims
to Baguio City. The Marawi siege in 2017 was a factor that
contributed to the recent surge of migration from Mindanao.
However, as the accounts of research participants indicate,
factorsotherthantheprotractedconictinMindanaobrought
many Muslims to Baguio City. The presence of an Islamic
school and the search for better business and employment
prospects are also important pull factors.
Baguio’s Muslim population was estimated at 8,000 as of 2012;
more updated estimates are not available. The majority of
Muslim migrants from Mindanao are Maranaos; the Tausugs
and Maguindanaos comprise the two other relatively big
groups. There are six mosques and two prayer rooms in the city.
An Islamic school, the Almaarif Educational Center, Inc., has
been in existence since 1995.
2
According to one key informant,
the stores and establishments in the City Center are mostly
owned by Muslims. Muslims have become visible in public life.
Two Muslims have been elected as barangay chairpersons – and
they won in predominantly Christian barangays, namely Campo
Filipino and Malcolm Square (from interview with a resource
person, January 14, 2020).
3
Public schools which have many Muslim students offer ALIVE
(Arab Language and Islamic Values Education), an after-
school program that Muslim pupils voluntarily attend to
enhance their understanding of Islamic teachings. In Baguio
City, ALIVE started as a pilot program in Central Elementary
School in 2005, and was formally introduced in 2008. Later,
the Department of Education in Baguio City opened ALIVE in
vepublicelementaryschools.SomeoftheFGDparticipants
are teachers in the ALIVE program. According to a community
leader, ALIVE is a very important program to promote and
strengthen Islamic values among young Muslims.
According to the Muslim migrants interviewed in the study,
there are also Muslims in La Trinidad – many of them work
or run a business in La Trinidad Public Market. Thus, it seems
some Muslim migrants are moving out or opting for less
crowded areas, such as La Trinidad, in their search for home
or work.
An ofcial in a barangay where many Muslims reside said
that their Muslim constituents are cooperative. The women
are traders in the night market. Some of the men join the
village guards who go around the barangay in the evenings.
In another barangay with a fairly large Muslim population, an
ofcialsharedsomechallengesinintegratingMuslimsinthe
community. They do not want to be included in the barangay
census; the barangay manages to get some details about them
when they apply for barangay clearance, a requirement for
applying for a business permit. Similar to the experience of
the other barangay, they often refuse to have their children
vaccinated.
1 Most Filipino Muslim migrants come from Mindanao, mostly they are Maranao or Tausug. Some migrants from Mindanao include non-Muslims.
Also, not all Filipino Muslim migrants come from Mindanao. Some of the Muslim research participants are from the Cordillera region, most of whom
are balik-Islam (Islam returnees). While non-Muslims view balik-Islam as converts to Islam, the balik-Islam see themselves as having returned to
Islam (Wadi, 2014). According to Wadi (2014): “The notion of “balik” or “return” is viewed to have ontological and epistemological dimension as well.
Itmeansthatman’soriginalnatureortrahisinaccordwithIslam.Hence,whenapersonembracesIslam,heisjustactuallyreturningtohisnature
and thus s/he has to struggle to return to such nature. In fact, some would say that conversion is not the proper term to describe said phenomenon.
Reversion is more appropriate.
2 For details about the Islamic school, see http://www.almaarifeduc.com.ph/?run=hist
3 Other sources are: Discover Islam Baguio ( http://discoverislambaguio.com/) and Baguio Muslim Communities (http://www.baguiomuslims.com/)
21
04 | Findings
networks was apparent in the chain migration of Cordillera
indigenous people to Baguio City. The establishment of
Bontoc Village or Ifugao Villages suggests the recreation
of the migrants’ home communities in the Baguio setting.
Among the migrant participants in the study, the role
of social networks is very striking in the case of Muslim
migrants from Mindanao. Almost all of the Muslim
migrants who participated in this study had family and
friends in Baguio City who helped them navigate their
new life. The woman and her children from Marawi City
joined her husband who had been in Baguio for some
time. According to her, their family lives in a house
owned by her grandfather, and in her compound, she
has about 70 relatives. She entrusts her children to her
relatives while she and her husband are at work.
14
LIVING IN BAGUIO
S
ocial integration. Overall, migrants consider Baguio
as welcoming; many described the people of Baguio
as kind. The city’s convivial atmosphere could have been
shaped by a long history of migration and the peaceful
co-existence of different cultures. Migrants, particularly
professionals and students, appreciated Baguio’s
multicultural diversity. People in Baguio not only come
from different provinces in the Philippines but also from
other countries. Up until a few years ago, there were
many Koreans in the city. Their numbers had declined
while foreigners from other regions, such as Africa,
have increased in recent years.
15
Migrants also liked the
range of culinary options and the vibrant art scene.
16
In the FGD with Muslim men, participants talked about
Baguio as a hospitable place for Muslims. According to
one informant, Muslims do not feel like they are being
staredat(especiallythewomenwhoareidentiedas
Muslim because of their dress and hijab). Participants said
that they feel safe and accepted in Baguio (see Box 2).
14SeveralbarangayofcialssharedtheirobservationofthetendencyofMuslimfamiliestosharehousingarrangements.
15 Based on the interview with a staff of a Korean organization in Baguio City.
16In2017,Baguiowasdeclareda“creativecity”bytheUnitedNationsEducational,ScienticandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)foritscraftsand
folk art (https://news.abs-cbn.com/life/11/01/17/baguio-hailed-as-a-unesco-creative-city).
In terms of the environmental, social, and cultural
aspects, migrants had an overall positive assessment of
theirlifeinBaguio.Studentsweresatisedwiththeir
educational experience in the city. As discussed in the
nextsectiononworkandemployment,thendings
point to marked differences in the experiences of
professionals, construction workers, and Muslim migrants.
Work and employment. Of the three groups, professional
migrants were found to generally have a stable income
and are protected because they are in the formal sector.
This group is dominated by women and early career
professionalswhoareworkingattheirrstjobafter
college. Concerns about income did not come out as
an issue for this group. The two older professionals
from the BPO and university were concerned about
other matters. The BPO professional’s main issue
was the laid-back work culture in Baguio; she misses
the more stimulating and competitive work culture in
Manila. She had no plans of establishing permanent
residence in Baguio. The male professional works in
the university during the week and goes home to his
family on weekends. His wife has a permanent position
as a teacher in La Union; if she joins him in Baguio, it
willbedifcultforhertoobtainateachingpositionin
Baguio. Although not an ideal situation, the family has
adjusted to the arrangement, which they found to be a
better situation than when he was working in Manila.
All four construction workers interviewed were migrants,
but only one has been joined by his family. The three
others live in the project’s premises which enable them
to save on rent and transportation. On weekends, the
two men from La Union typically go home to their
families, while the one from Nueva Ecija visits his family
less frequently. For these workers, moving to Baguio
as a family is not possible because their income—the
22
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
daily minimum wage in Baguio City is PHP 350 (EUR
6.23)—will not be able to cover accommodation and
living expenses. Although their income is low, they have
social protection. Their company enrolled them in the
Social Security System, PhilHealth and Pag-IBIG or Home
Mutual Fund. Living in the project site, their interactions
are limited to their co-workers and they do not venture
out beyond the worksite. For them, Baguio is a workplace;
they were not aware about the social and political issues
of the city. For this group, the company is crucial in
promoting their well-being in Baguio. It is possible that
they will be assigned to other construction projects
elsewhere, hence their stay in Baguio is likely temporary.
Muslim migrants in Baguio City are mostly engaged
in trade—the night market, Malcolm Square, and
Baguio Center Mall are among the major venues where
they conduct their trading activities. Two of the male
migrants in the study sold cellphones; both admitted
that the competition is stiff, so they shifted to online
selling. The other participants were Arabic Language
and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE) teachers, one
was connected with a center, and one was a student in
the Islamic school. Among the four Muslim woman,
only one was employed as a sales assistant in her aunt’s
clothing shop, earning PHP 300 per day.
17
The three
other women had no jobs; all three had worked abroad
before;andtwowereindifculteconomiccircumstances.
The employment prospects of Muslim participants
in the study were limited to trading, buy-and-sell, or
working for businesses owned by relatives or co-ethnics.
According to a key informant, trading and buy-and-sell
among Muslim migrants is already a saturated sector.
He advises potential Muslim migrants to consider places
outside of Baguio and to explore other livelihoods. Thus,
whileMuslimmigrantsmayndBaguiowelcoming,
in terms of economic integration, their employment is
largely within and among their ethnic community.
17 Her husband sells cellphones; on a good day, he can bring home PHP500.
18 In Baguio’s popular parlance, the fourth category may be part of the transient population. However, if they spend more time in Baguio during the
week, their usual place of residence is Baguio. For workers and students who commute to Baguio on a daily basis, their usual place of residence is
where they return to at night. The UCC study discussed the need to estimate the nighttime and daytime population of Baguio for planning purposes.
Future migration plans. Among the current migrants,
the study found varying degrees of permanence and
temporariness in their residence in Baguio. Their length
of stay in the city can be placed on a continuum: a) those
who have been in Baguio on a relatively permanent
basis (e.g., Muslim migrants who are in Baguio with
their families); b) those who came to Baguio temporarily
and have remained (e.g., former students who became
workers); c) those who are expected to remain in Baguio
for a certain period of time (e.g., students); and d)
those who stay in Baguio during the week and return
to their hometown on weekends (e.g., professionals,
construction workers, students), particularly for those
from nearby municipalities and provinces. Whether
or not migrants will settle in Baguio will depend on
prospects and future plans, such as employment
opportunities and marriage plans, among others.
18
Presently, the students are temporary migrants in
Baguio.Thediscussionswithstudentsrevealeduid
migration plans and intentions: some would consider
tostayinBaguioiftheycanndwork,someplan
toreturntotheirhometowns,someintendtond
work in Metro Manila, and some will move to where
there are employment opportunities. Most of the
young professionals were former students of Baguio
universities. Some of them also mentioned wanting to
remain in Baguio, but better opportunities elsewhere
or marriage plans, among others, will play an important
in deciding whether or not to remain in Baguio.
23
04 | Findings
VIEWS ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
P
erceptions of climate change. When asked about
climate change, most migrants and stakeholders
have recollections of Typhoon Ompong (international
name: Mangkhut), a tropical cyclone that made landfall
in Cagayan, Philippines on 15 September 2018, bringing
ashoods,stormsurges,andlandslides.CARwasamong
the battered regions. Itogon, Benguet experienced a
landslide which resulted in 100 deaths.
19
Key informants
from the Baguio City Disaster Risk Reduction and
ManagementOfceandtheLaTrinidadMunicipalDisaster
RiskReductionandManagementOfceremembered
providing assistance to the municipality of Itogon.
Perceptions of SOEs were explored via the question
whether they have observed any change in Baguio’s
environment and what these changes are. All research
participants—from the residents in their 80s to the
migrants in their 20s—were quick to indicate climate
variability and increasing temperature.
20
They commented
that the time and length of dry and rainy seasons, or cold
and warm weather seasons in Baguio are less predictable
now. Everybody remarked on the increasing temperature,
mentioning that Baguio’s weather has become warmer.
According to many of them, January in previous years was
colder, but now, there is no need for sweaters or jackets.
Residents lamented the loss of pine trees and wooded
areas in “old” Baguio. An 80-year old resident recalled
that Baguio smelled more fragrant before because
there were more pine trees. Another resident said
that in the past, “you know that you are approaching
Baguio because of the scent of pine trees,” but
now, the scent of pine trees has become fainter.
19 From https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/update-typhoon-ompong-mangkhut-27-september-2018-200-pm
20 Data on average temperature do not indicate a marked increase in temperature: from 1970 to 2010, the average annual temperature was 19.5oC,
with January as the coldest and March as the warmest (PDO-CGB, 2016: 61). In 2019, the mean temperature was 19.45oC, with January as the coldest
and May as the warmest.
Many stakeholders and migrants commented on the
deforestation of Baguio, with many citing the loss of
forested areas to give way to various projects such as the
construction of SM Baguio City. The loss of biodiversity
was less observable to many research participants. Many
couldnotnamewhichoraorfaunahadbeenreducedin
number or had been lost altogether. Several stakeholders
and migrants did mention that the cutting of trees may
have resulted in the reduction or loss of some species.
A resident observed that there are now fewer fern
varieties in the more wooded parts of Camp John Hay.
SOEs, migration and tourism. Migration has been
implicated in discussions on climate change in Baguio
through its contribution to population growth. According
to stakeholders, increasing population implies more
resource requirements: more housing construction
without much regard for safety and environmental
impact; increased use of vehicles which results in more
trafccongestionandmorecarbonemissions;worsening
water shortage; and more garbage production which
callsformoreefcientsolidwastemanagement.
Although migration/migrants and tourism/tourists are not
the same (and this was made clear in the discussions with
research participants), migrants and stakeholders raised
concernsabouttheinuxoftouriststoanoverpopulated
city. Research participants said that the stream of
visitors to Baguio is now a year-round occurrence.
Concernsaboutgarbage,congestion,andtrafc
problems were somehow linked with or exacerbated by
touristarrivals.Agovernmentofcialevenquestioned
whether Baguio really earns from tourism, citing the
case of tourists who come for the day, they bring their
own food, they camp out in Burnham Park, and then
24
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
they leave garbage behind. It is interesting to point out
that migrants (particularly students) are as caring and
protective of Baguio’s environment as the residents.
21
Tentative notions on climate change and migration.
Probing whether and how climate change may affect
migration did not surface in the discussions with
migrants, mainly because the migrants in this study
do not identify as climate migrants.
22
Nonetheless,
some insights on how climate change may (or
maynot)inuencemigrationaresuggestedbythe
following observations shared by the participants:
Although it is not climate change-related, the
1990 earthquake, an example of rapid or extreme
geological event, did not lead to outmigration
from Baguio. According to Baguio residents
who were interviewed in the study, they did not
consider moving elsewhere despite the massive
destruction of the city. As data shows, Baguio’s
population, in fact, has been on an upward trend.
In the future, some migrants and key informants
speculated that if Baguio will continue to experience
increasing temperature, it will likely lose its appeal
to tourists. This scenario suggests the possibility that
climatechangeinBaguiowillreducetheinuxof
tourists. As to whether increasing temperature will
reduce migration to Baguio or will incline migrants
and residents to leave Baguio are questions that need
to be explored further in future research. If Baguio
will have a warmer temperature, other areas in the
country will experience the same change, and in fact,
it will be warmer in other areas (Baguio City, due to its
elevation averages temperatures 8°C cooler than the
21 Interviews in Atok, Benguet, an emerging tourist destination in CAR, revealed similar concerns over the growing number of tourists visiting the
community.
22 Advocacy groups and the media use the term “environmental refugees” or “climate refugees” to refer to people who are forced to move because
ofconditionsofdrought,oodsandstorms.Ashadbeenmentioned,“refugee,”isalegaltermasdenedinthe1951UNConventionRelatingtothe
Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The term climate migrant is proposed instead (UNU, 2015; UN, n.d.).
23 A news report speculated on Baguio becoming “a site for “environmental refugees” when people from the lowlands unable to withstand the
increasing temperature start migrating to elevated areas with temperate climate and where basic services and job opportunities are present
(Palangchao, 2019).
rest of the country according to state weather bureau
PAGASA). In the event of increasing temperature in
Baguio, this – or other climate change impacts for that
matter – will not be the sole driver to leave the city.
Some migrants expressed reservations about
Baguio as a haven for climate migrants in the
future:
23
some of them said that Baguio is prone to
earthquakes and heavy rainfall, and these might
discourage climate migrants from relocating to
Baguio. Others mentioned that the high cost
of housing in Baguio could be a deterrent.
People who might be displaced by climate change,
particularly rising sea levels, may not necessarily
migrate to Baguio City because there are other
options. Baguio as a destination for climate
migrants in the future is also a question that can be
explored more meaningfully in future research.
VIEWS ON THE ENVIRONMENT-
RELATED POLICIES OF THE CGB
S
takeholders, particularly residents active in various
community groups, were well-informed about
the various environment-related policies of the CGB.
For several stakeholders, especially residents, what is
more important is the enforcement of existing laws
and regulations, particularly those concerning land
use and zoning. Residents who have lived through the
1990 earthquake aired their deep disappointment over
what they see as blatant violations of these regulations.
They wondered why the construction of high-rise
condominiums have been allowed when there is supposed
to be a six-storey limit. Infrastructure developments in
wooded areas and construction of houses on sloping areas
25
04 | Findings
also point to the routine violation of existing regulations.
Among the migrants, professionals and students also
remarked on zoning violations; students highlighted
the need to maintain protected areas. Many migrants
were aware of the ban on the use of plastic, but they
also noted that the ban is not strictly enforced.
Overall, migrants and stakeholders think that CGB’s
current policies and programs have to address
climate change; the focus, thus far, has been on
disaster risk reduction and management.
In general, migrants were not active in community
organizations. It was mostly Baguio residents
who have raised their voices in advocating for
reforms and initiating actions to promote a safe,
healthy, and sustainable environment. Following
are some examples of these collective actions:
The Baguio We Want: a coalition of people’s
organizationsthatdenestheBaguiothatthey
want to see, which includes a Baguio that promotes
and nurtures a healthy environment. A people’s
summit organized in 2015 formulated a ten-
point agenda that the group used for advocacy
purposes and in engaging with candidates
running for elective posts in the CGB.
24
24 See https://www.facebook.com/pg/thebaguiowewantl
25 See https://www.facebook.com/groups/baguiotrafc
Zero-Waste: a group that advocates for zero
waste practices given the scale of Baguio’s waste
management problem. The group campaigned
for the passage of Ordinance No. 35 series of
2017 or the “Plastic and Styrofoam-Free Baguio
Ordinance.” Even without funding, the group
conducts awareness raising and educational
campaigns to promote zero waste. One of the
conveners became a barangay kagawad (barangay
councilor) and was able to implement a zero-
waste program in her barangay during her term.
BaguioRoadTrafcandObstructions(and
Pedestrians’/Commuters’ Welfare): an online
groupwhichaimstond“solutionstoproblems
and highlight urgent problems regarding the
citytrafcandvehicularcongestion.”
25
Research participants, particularly residents, expressed
optimism about the future of Baguio, citing the value
ofresearchndingsandcommunityactiontond
better ways. Stakeholders (especially residents and
those in government) were also hopeful that the
commitment, vision, and leadership of Mayor Benjamin
Magalong will steer Baguio in the right direction.
Crop /Month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Potatoes
Lettuce
Cabbage
Carrots
FIGURE 3. TYPICAL ANNUAL CROPPING SEASON
Legend
Land Preparation Maintainance
Planting Harvest
26
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
Climate Change And Small Farm Owners
As mentioned at the beginning of the report, this
secondary objective was included in the study to
provide a comparative analysis of how informants in
agriculture and in rural areas perceive and respond
to climate change. The following insights are based
on the interviews conducted with small family farm
owners, farm supervisors, and a farm worker in
two corporate farms, and a representative from the
MunicipalAgriculturalOfce(MAO)ofAtok,Benguet.
Farming practices. The four farming families interviewed
in Atok own and operate farmland that range in size from
at least 200 square meters to a few hectares. The farmers
had been commercially growing temperate crops and
owerssincetheirteens.Thethreeolderfarmers(Manong
Walter, Manong Fred and his wife Alma, and Manang
Marta, all pseudonyms) learned farming from their parents
while the younger farmer-couple, Ollie and Carmen (also
pseudonyms), supplemented their practical experience
with formal training in agriculture. For the most part, they
rely on their own labor, occasionally hiring some workers
during harvest time and the hauling of farm produce.
Among the farmers, Manang Marta currently grows
mostlycutowersandvegetablesinbetweenower
growing seasons. Manong Fred is the only one who has
shifted to organic farming, after attending a training
program on organic farming sponsored by the Department
of Agriculture. He said that the adjustment to organic
farming was not easy, but he is now convinced of the
manybenetsoforganicfarming.Forone,unlike
conventional farming, organic farming is less capital
intensive. Manong Walter, on the other hand, said that
organic farming is “matrabaho” (labor intensive). He
will need to hire workers which will increase cost.
All of them practice rotation farming, based on the known
schedule of rainy and dry seasons (e.g., see Figure 3,
based on Manong Walters annual cropping schedule),
and availability of water. Atok is an elevated area (7,400 ft
above sea level) and farmers and residents source water
from springs that are replenished by rainfall. Water supply
is also unevenly distributed in Atok. In the lower elevation
areas, like Pasdong, there is always enough supply no
matter the season. But in some places, like Paoay, springs
dry up and may produce little during the summer months.
Usually, more than one farmer draws water from
a spring; they have a verbal agreement and they
take turns in drawing water for their crops. The
farmers invest in building an impounding tank and
install a hose to reach their farms. When a spring
driesup,theyhavetondanothersource.
All the farmers commented on the changing period and
length of time of the rainy and dry seasons. Compared
with the Baguio-based research participants, their
observations and their responses to climate change are
rooted in their actual experience. Box 3 describes how
farmers have adjusted or adapted to climate change.
No evidence of migration as a response to climate
change.AccordingtotheMunicipalAgriculturalOfce
(MAO) of Atok, there have been no documented instances
of farmers leaving the community for good due to the
inability to farm because of drought, excessive rain, very
high temperatures, and other climate related changes.
Evenunderdifcultcircumstances,farmershavenot
abandoned their farms because this is tantamount to
abandoning their inherited land. In the future, they
will most likely not abandon their farms even when
water becomes scarce, or when water sources dry up.
As pointed out earlier and attested to by the MAO, in
the face of these changes, farmers adjust their farming
activities. They also adopt certain technologies, such as
fog harvesting or impounding of rainwater within the farm
to be able to accumulate enough to irrigate their farms.
27
04 | Findings
BOX 3. SMALLHOLDERS ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Farmers have noted the variability of the beginning and end of
the seasons.
In the past, the rains would come in May, but these days,
rains start as early as March.
Before, rains lasted until November or December; now, the
rain stops in October.
Typhoons and winds are stronger now.
In places like Atok, farmers have to deal with frost, which
usually occurs at night when temperatures dip. However, if the
frost on the leaves of plants is not too thick, the ice naturally
melts when it warms during the day or when there is light rain.
When asked about the impact of climate change, Manong
Walter underscored the importance of water supply. According
to him, “Climate change has no effect on a farmer for as long
as there is water.
To cope with extended dry spells or extended rainy seasons,
farmers in general simply make adjustments their cropping
calendars. When water supply dwindles in the summer
months, they delay planting until water supply is more stable,
or they plant other crops that require less water, or they plant
high breed crops that can withstand the dry spell. If they
share an irrigation source with other farmers, they develop a
schedule to rotate the use of water supply. If there is no water
atall,farmersleavetheirlandsidleandndotherlandswith
some irrigation to rent and farm for the period. On very hot
days, they adjust their working schedule, working earlier, from
4:30 to 10:00 in the morning, and returning to work in the late
afternoon when it is cooler. Manong Fred, the organic farmer,
practices successive planting of different crops to have a variety
of produce the whole year through. He also advises to collect
the weeds and compost them, instead of the usual practice
of burning weeds to clear the land, which is not healthy and
contributes to climate change.
None of the farmers mentioned migration to other places or
leaving farming as an adaptive strategy to deal with climate
change. The fact that they own their farms and their life-
long farming experience may predispose farmers to remain in
agriculture.
Farmworkers, on the other hand, may have less investments
in farming in the community, and may either seek farm
employment in other areas or consider off-farm employment.
On their own, farmers in Atok have developed adaptive
strategies in response to climate change. These include
adjustments in the choice of crops or varieties that can better
withstand changing conditions. The idea of migrating to
other areas did not arise in the conversations with farmers. To
date, their long experience with farming has equipped them
with knowledge and insights that enable them to adjust to
climate change. Small farm owners have found ways to cope
with climate change which sustain production. Getting their
produce to the market and obtaining a fair price is a constant
challenge that they grapple with. Another challenge is the
ageing of the farmers. Except for Ollie, the rest are more than
50 years old, and none of their children are in farming.
Sidchogan-Batani and Ngina (2009) noted that adaptation to
climate change in the agriculture sector can be costly as this
may involve initiatives such as the “adoption of new seeds,
more intense time use, a need to review land use plans, climate
change, among others.” Based on the responses of small family
farmers in Atok, Benguet, they have keenly observed climate
variability and have adapted to changing weather conditions
by making adjustments that did not require major investments,
mostly by choosing plants that could better withstand new
conditions (e.g., prolonged rain or heavy rainfall, or drought),
or by postponing the planting of some varieties. These
strategies need to be acknowledged, and where appropriate,
to be supplemented by other approaches (such as adoption of
new seeds) to enhance the menu of adaptive strategies that
small landholding farmers can avail of. The recently published,
Compendium of Climate-Resilient Agriculture Technologies
and Approaches in the Philippines, by Labios et al. 2019, can
be a useful resource in developing programs and intervention
involving farmers.
28
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
The Department of Agriculture through the MAO has
provided support and assistance to small farm family
owners in the community. The farmers mentioned
receiving seeds, plastic sheets, pipes, cement, crates,
and sprayers. Two farmers received a hand tractor and
a shredder. The hand tractor had big tires which was
difculttouseintheterracedfarms.Asmallhand
tractor or a hoe would be more suitable in terraced
farming. In terms of need, they said that plastic sheets
to build a greenhouse would be useful for them.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
CORPORATE FARMS
A
tok is also home to two corporations renting land
in the community for the commercial production of
selecthighvaluevegetablesandowersfortheMetro
Manila market. Farm A is fully devoted to the production
of celery and six varieties of lettuce, namely Romaine,
Green Ice, Red Butter, Green Butter, Lolla Rosa Red
and Lolla Rosa Green. The farm is also trying to grow
broccoli.Someoweringplantsarecultivatedaround
the farm as insect repellent. The farm uses hydroponic
and drip technologies, and has made considerable
investmentsonfacilitiesandxturessuchasgreen
houseswithdripirrigationttingsandwaterpumps.
FarmBexclusivelyproduceshighvalueowers—tulips,
astromeras, daisies—suitable for the cold climate of Atok.
Both commercial farms employ many workers, unlike the
small family farms which are mostly one- to two-person
operations. Farm A has 60 workers; Farm B has 40. The
majority of farm workers—who are almost all men—hail
from other provinces. The workers in Farm A come from
Rosales, Pangasinan (where farm supervisors come from),
and Misamis Oriental (the home province of the wife of
the farm manager). In Farm B, all the workers come from
Bohol Province; they were recruited at different times by
the farm supervisor, who himself comes from Bukidnon.
Farm A (left) and Farm B (above) invest in technology in managing their farms. | © Alicia G. Follosco | GIZ
29
04 | Findings
Many of them had been working in these two farms for
many years. Some of the married workers have brought
their family along and live on the farm. One worker claims
they do not wish to go back to their hometown because
there is no work for them, being a farm hand in Farm B
means a steady and regular income. In both farms, the
workers receive minimum wage, but they are adequately
covered by PhilHealth, SSS and Pag-IBIG. They also have
free housing with free utilities and a regular supply of
rice. The Farm A workers from Rosales go home at least
once a month or as needed for family emergencies. The
workers can hitch a ride on the farm’s trucks bound for
Metro Manila and back, while those from Misamis Oriental
manage to visit their home communities every 3-4 years.
The drivers and patterns of the migration of farmworkers
to rural Atok share some similarities with the migration
of workers to Baguio City. In both cases, the main driver
is the search for employment opportunities. Although
farmworkers are among the least paid, the migrant
farmworkers employed by these two corporate farms
receive the basic minimum wage, and they enjoy other
benets,includingsocialprotection.Thelongyears
of employment of some of the workers suggest that
they have become settlers in Atok. With respect to
differences between the migration to Atok and Baguio
City, the migrant farmworkers are mostly men, whereas
the workers and professionals interviewed in Baguio
City were less skewed in terms of gender composition.
The construction workers were all men, but the
professionals were dominated by women. Although this
observation cannot be generalized to the population of
migrantworkersinBaguioCity,itreectsthegender
proleofinternalmigrationinthePhilippines.Until
recently, rural-to-rural migration was undertaken
mostly by men, while women dominated rural-to-urban
migration (Quisumbing and McNiven, 2006; Gultiano
and Xenos, 2004 as cited in Asis and Battistella, 2013).
Findings from the 2018 National Migration Survey suggest
some nuances in recent internal migration in the country.
In terms of lifetime migrants (i.e., the number of persons
whose place of birth and current place of residence at
the time of the survey differ), the survey found more
rural-to-ruralowsthanrural-to-urbanows.Females
outnumbered males among lifetime rural-to-rural
migrants (51.7 percent vs. 48.3 percent) while the share
of both genders was balanced among rural-to-urban
migrants (PSA and UPPI 2019: 56). Similarly, among
period migrants (i.e., the number of persons whose
placeofresidenceveyearsagoandcurrentplaceof
residence at the time of the survey differ), there were more
rural-to-rural migrants than rural-to-urban migrants.
Interestingly, there were no pronounced differences in
the share of males and females in both rural-to-urban and
rural-to-rural migrations (PSA and UPPI, 2020: 56, 58).
Given the scale of their operations and being well-
established corporations, these two farms utilize the
latest farm technologies that ensure steady and regular
production. Both have the capacity and resources
to install deep wells and water pumps to guarantee
a regular supply of water throughout the year. As
such, they do not experience the seasonal shortage of
water the way smaller family farms in the area do.
In summary, with their resources, corporate farms
invest in smart farming and technology to address
and mitigate the negative impacts of climate change.
They also have a ready market for their produce
andowersinMetroManila,therebyavoiding
intermediaries, and securing fair price in the process.
30
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
B
aguio City has been a migration magnet since the 1900s, and migration
has since contributed to its remarkable population growth, economic
dynamism, and the making of a multi-ethnic, multicultural Baguio. Having
reached its ideal population size of 25,000-30,000 decades ago, the city’s
current population estimated at more than 370,000 suggests a picture of a city
bursting at the seams. This study attempted to examine and link the three
strands of migration, climate change—particularly SOEs—and governance. It is
highlyrelevanttoconsiderthesestrandsinBaguioCitygiventhesignicance
of migration, the urgency of environment-related concerns, and the role that
governance can play in promoting sustainable development of Baguio City.
Primary data for the study were drawn from FGDs with migrants and KIIs with
relevant stakeholders in Baguio City, supplemented by interviews conducted
with farmers and other resource persons in Atok and La Trinidad, Benguet.
Following are key insights about migration, the climate change and
migration nexus, and governance in the context of Baguio City.
MIGRATION PATTERNS: SOMETHING
OLD, SOMETHING NEW
A
s the gateway to and the only center in CAR, Baguio continues to
attract migrants seeking employment, education and economic
opportunities, the same reasons that have pulled migrants to the city over
thedecades.FormigrantsfromMindanao,conictisoneofthedrivers
of migration from this region, mostly involving Muslims. The 2017 Marawi
siege occasioned a spike in the recent migration of Muslims, and in part,
thechoiceofBaguioasadestinationwasinuencedbythepresenceof
well-established social networks. As a migrant destination, a unique pull
factor of Baguio City is its environment, particularly the cool climate.
Migrants have varying degrees of permanence and temporariness in their
residence in the city. Their length of stay in the city can be placed on a
continuum: a) those who have been in Baguio on a relatively permanent basis
(e.g., Muslim migrants who are in Baguio with their families); b) those who
05
Conclusion and
Recommendations
came to Baguio temporarily and have remained (e.g.,
former students who became workers); c) those who are
expected to remain in Baguio for a certain period of time
(e.g., students); and d) those who stay in Baguio during
the week and return to their hometown on weekends (e.g.,
professionals, construction workers, students), particularly
for those from nearby municipalities and provinces.
Whether or not migrants will settle in Baguio will depend
on prospects and future plans, such as employment
opportunities and marriage plans, among others.
Migrants consider Baguio as a welcoming place and they
appreciate the multicultural character of the city. For
Muslim migrants, in particular, the welcoming milieu
of Baguio is indicated by the sense of acceptance and
safety felt by migrants, the presence of mosques in the
city, and the CGBs support for ALIVE classes. Migrant
construction workers who live in the project site are the
least connected to the community and social life of the
city; for them, Baguio is mainly a place where they work.
The economic integration of migrants differs strikingly by
occupation. Professionals have stable employment and
income while those in the informal sector have variable
income and lack social protection. The construction
workers in this study earn minimum income, but
they have social insurance such as PhilHealth, SSS
and Pag-IBIG coverage. Muslim migrants are mostly
in trading, with the wealthier ones employing co-
ethnics as assistants. The trading sector is already an
overcrowded arena, suggesting the need to explore
other employment options for Muslim migrants.
Compared to rural migration to Atok, farmworker
migrants employed by corporate farms are predominantly
male. Farmworkers earn minimum wage income,
free accommodation and have social protection.
In both urban and rural migration, social
networks played an important role in facilitating
migration and creating chain migration originating
fromspecicorigincommunities.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
MIGRATION NEXUS
M
igrants, especially professionals and students,
shared the concerns of residents over the current
and long-term environmental health and livability of
Baguio City. Migrants, residents, and other stakeholders
sharedconcernsabouttheinuxoftouristsandthe
associatedproblemsofcongestion,trafc,carbon
emission, and mounting trash problems. Increasing
temperature was the most recognized type of SOE
among migrants and other research participants.
Migrants’ views on how climate change may affect
migration suggest that the link is not automatic as other
factors may intervene. As an origin area, increasing
temperature may not necessarily trigger migration from
Baguio because other areas in the Philippines will likely be
warmer. As a destination area, climate migrants may be
deterred from migrating to Baguio because it is prone to
earthquakes and there are other destinations to consider.
In rural, agricultural Atok, farmers have keenly
observed climate variability and increasing
temperature. Farmers have adjusted to these changes
by rescheduling their working hours or planting
vegetables that can withstand little or heavy rainfall.
Migrating to farm elsewhere or leaving farming
was not an option considered by smallholders, as
it would be tantamount to leaving their lands.
GOVERNANCE
T
he CGB has established the legal framework and
policies for land use, zoning, and the protection of
the environment. The Baguio rehabilitation plan, launched
in January 2020, is the latest policy and comprehensive
15-yearplanofactionthatidentiesneededinterventions
intheenvironment,transportandtrafc,tourist
destinations, and informal settlements in hazard-prone
areas. Under the environment, the main concerns are
the sewerage system, solid waste management, green
32
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
cover, air quality, and the city cemetery. For tourism,
the action focuses on the improvement of tourist
destinations in the city, beginning with Burnham Park.
Although Baguio City does not have policies to
manage migration (unlike the well-established
legal and policy frameworks to address the host of
environment-related concerns), the CGB nonetheless
has introduced good practices to promote the social
integration of migrants. The institutional support
given to the ALIVE program and the dialogue with
the Muslim community are excellent examples.
The shared views of residents and migrants in advocating
for the promotion and protect of Baguio’s environment
reectsthepotentialofmigrantstoengageinactive
citizenship, i.e., participation in activities that promote and
sustain democracy. Several community groups, including
an online group, actively engage the local government and
with other stakeholders, to question, propose solutions,
and collaborate to build a sustainable and livable Baguio.
POLICY AND RESEARCH
RECOMMENDATIONS
F
indings from the study point to some policy
recommendations. Inasmuch as the environmental
aspects have received much attention, including
the recently launched 2020 Baguio Rehabilitation
Plan, the recommendations to the CGB will
focus more on migration-related concerns.
As an initial step toward developing a migration
lens in policymaking, the CGB can undertake or
commission a Green Paper on migration to Baguio
City. Among others, the Green Paper can review the
ongoing initiatives that collect data on migrants and
transients (e.g., LMIS , now known as the Registry of
Barangay Inhabitants & Migrants (RBIM)), and part
of the preparation of the Green Paper could involve
consultations with different generations and/or groups
of migrants in the city to look into their concerns
and contributions, and where appropriate, to make
recommendations on policy areas that would promote the
participation and inclusion of migrants in Baguio City.
As the study indicated, the lack of decent work
opportunities hampers the economic integration of
some migrants in Baguio City. Professional migrants
and workers employed in the formal sector have stable
employment and are covered by SSS, Philhealth and Pag-
IBIG. In the case of Muslim migrants, their employment
prospects fall outside the formal sector – mostly, they
are in the trading sector, employed by co-ethnics. To
promote the economic integration of migrants, the
following support programs may be developed under
thePublicEmploymentServiceOfceand/orthe
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority:
a. Skills development programs based on the
labor market needs of Baguio City;
b. Coaching for job interviews and
preparation of resumes;
c. Support in developing a business plan (for
those interested in starting a business);
d. Information campaign on social protection programs,
requirements and the application process; and
e. Encouragement of voluntary enrollment
in social protection programs.
One aspect of the 2020 Baguio Rehabilitation Plan
is strategic action for the improvement of tourist
destinations and heritage sites. It is laudable to improve
these sites, but doing so with a view to increase and
promote tourism needs to consider the undesirable
consequences of tourism for the city. As the study noted,
stakeholders and migrants have expressed concerns over
theincessantandgrowinginuxoftouriststoBaguio,
which they saw as having negative impacts on the
environment. Although tourism is not synonymous with
migration, it entails population movement or the comings
and goings of people. Given the importance of tourism
to Baguio’s economy, the tendency is to promote it. The
33
05 | Conclusion & Recommendations
proposal to charge fees for tourist destinations owned
or managed by the CGB is intended to raise funds for
maintenance of these sites and to cover funds for waste
management. The study recommends public education,
specicallyfortourists,topromotesustainableor
responsible tourism. The idea is to invite tourists to share
– particularly in terms of their actions and practices –
towards ensuring that the beauty of Baguio will be enjoyed
by generations to come. Tourist establishments and
businesses can be partners in this educational program.
For as long as Baguio City remains as the economic,
educational, and administrative center in CAR, it will
continue to attract migrants. Renewed efforts to realize
the Baguio, La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan, Tuba and
Tublay (BLISTT) growth center are expected to foster
development beyond Baguio. The BLISTT Action Agenda
2017-2019 envisions BLISTT as a cooperative arrangement
among the member-local government units (LGUs) to
promote development for all. BLISTT is not a metro
arrangement where a single LGU dominates the rest (as
in Metro Davao or Metro Cebu). The BLISTT growth
node aims to decongest Baguio City while spreading
economic opportunities to the other member LGUs.
TherealizationofBLISTTwillbenetfromdeveloping
a migration lens, as the road toward developing a
regional growth node will include the movement not
only of capital and goods but of people as well.
Finally, the study offers the following
suggestions for future research:
The study reiterates the UCC study’s recommendation
to carry out a study of the daytime population of Baguio
City (tourists and transients) to improve the estimation of
carryingcapacity.Itisimportanttodenethesetermsand
concepts (see also PSA Board Resolution No. 08, Series of
2017,ApprovingandAdoptingtheOfcialConceptsand
DenitionsonInternalandInternationalMigrationfor
Statistical Purposes). Beyond estimating the size of the
daytimepopulation,itisimportanttoknowtheprole,
activities and services accessed by tourists and transients.
There are four barangays in Baguio City which piloted the
Local Migration Information System (LMIS). The LMIS,
now known as the Registry of Barangay, Inhabitants
& Migrants (RBIM), offers the advantage of collecting
migration data from the smallest political unit. The
questionnaire includes questions on the following:
previousresidenceveyearsago,previousresidence
six months ago, length of stay in the barangay, type
of resident (non-migrant, migrant and transient), sex,
age, date of transfer, reasons for leaving the previous
residence, date of transfer, plan to return to previous
residence and when, reasons for transferring to the
barangay, and intended duration of stay in the current
barangay. The question on reasons for leaving the
previous residence includes “disaster-related relocation”
among the seven response categories. This may allow
analysis of climate change-related relocation. The LMIS
is a low-lying fruit which can be explored for further
analysis to yield information on the extent of disaster-
relatedmigrationinthefourbarangaysandtheproleof
disaster-related migrants from other types of migrants.
This can be one of the projects that the CGB can carry
out or support toward developing a migration lens in
policymaking for Baguio City. As the proponent of
LMIS, the Commission on Population and Development
(POPCOM)-CAR is an important partner in this endeavor,
along with the Population Program of the City Health
Ofce(CHO),withwhichPOPCOM-CARisworking
closely in the implementation of the ongoing LMIS. The
CGB can convene a technical working group consisting
of POPCOM-CAR, NEDA-CAR, the Philippines Statistics
Authority-CAR, CHO, the Population Program of CHO,
CityPlanningandDevelopmentOfce,andmigration
scholars as core members. The technical working group
canreviewthedenitionsofnon-migrant,migrant
and transient used in the LMIS and the local context
vis-à-vis the PSA Board Resolution No. 08, Series of
2017,ApprovingandAdoptingtheOfcialConcepts
andDenitionsonInternalandInternationalMigration
for Statistical Purposes; make recommendations
towardthestandardizationofdenitionsofnon-
34
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
migrant, migrant and transient to the CGB; assess the
quality and usability of LMIS data; and identify priority
topics for secondary analysis using LMIS data.
Related to the LMIS, it would be useful to
conduct an evaluation of the implementation,
use, and relevance of the survey, and to assess the
replicability of the survey to other barangays. It is
recommended that this assessment be conducted by
an independent researcher or group of researchers.
TheCityHealthOfceandtheCityDisasterRisk
ReductionandManagementOfcerevealedplansto
conduct a health survey and disaster preparedness
survey, respectively. These and future data collection
activitieswouldbenetbyincludingquestionsthat
can provide basic information on the migration status
ofrespondents:placeofbirth,placeofresidenceve
years ago, and place of residence three months ago
(e.g., as used in the 2018 NMS). Responses to these
questions can generate migration status, which will
enable further comparative analysis between residents
and migrants. Considering Baguio’s multi-ethnic
population, it would also be useful to include a question
on ethnicity as one of the background variables.
It would also be useful to study how climate change may
impact migration in known origin communities which
have experienced climate change – e.g., communities
which have been affected by drought, increasing
temperature and other SOEs and ROEs—and to explore
their adaptive strategies, including migration.
The presence of academic institutions in Baguio
City bodes well for the establishment of a research
consortium that will promote and support evidence-
based governance and policymaking in the city.
35
05 | Conclusion & Recommendations
© Joshua Kyle | Unsplash
36
A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
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A City In Motion: Migration, Climate Change, And Governance In Baguio City
Annex I.
Baseline Census for the Establishment of Registry of
Barangay Inhabitants & Migrants (RBIM)